Preface

The modern world offers lots of readily available online resourses for learning. Wikipedia, Google, news sources, millions of websites and blogs, even YouTube, offer access to information in nearly any subject that triggers your curiosity and interest. Nonetheless, I continue to believe that for deep understanding of something, nothing beats the integrated approach and focus of an old-fashioned printed-on-paper textbook.

When I open a new book, on any subject, the 1st thing I want to know is what the book has to offer that makes it worth my while to read it. I would like to try to help your answer that query for the book that you are holding in your hand.

Most of the change occurs around computer technology. The computer is, after all, at the foundation of information systems. A sound understanding of computer systems is, therefore, an essential element of success.

The subject of this book is the computer hardware with basic electronics, digital electronics and networking: The single source for reliable information on how PCs work, troubleshooting and fixing problems, adding hardware, optimizing performance, and building new PCs. This book contains informations on PC processors, motherboards, BIOS, memory, SSD annd HDD storage, video, audio, networks, networks, intertnet connectivity, power and much more.

Fundamentals Of Computer

Introduction Of Computer :

A computer is a group of electronic devices that process data and can perform a varity of operations with a set of instructions called program.

The word computer derives from the word "compute" which means to calculate. Hence a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmatic and logical operations at a high speed. It is also known as Data Processor as it can store, process and retrive the data.

Classification of parts of a computer :

Classification of parts of a computer depends on its sustainability. There are two types of parts of a computer like internal parts/interior parts and exterior parts/external parts.

Internal Parts: Those parts which are situated within a cabinet is called internal parts like SMPS, PROCESSOR, COOLING FAN/CPU FAN, RAM, HDD, CD/DVD RW, SATA/PATA etc.

SMPS: SMPS Stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. We can divide it’s function in four stages----------------

1.Power Consumption: SMPS consumes power from power plug via 3 pin power cord and it holds 220-230 +ve AC within it.

2. Voltage Reduction: It reduces the power from 220-230 +ve AC to {(-12) - (+12)} AC via its transistor.

3. Convertion: As any type of board only contains dc current, SMPS convert the voltage from AC to DC that it can easily supply to others.

4. Supplier/Distributor: Its last/final call is termed to distribute the above said dc current to motherboard through 20/24 pin.

MotherBoard:

1. Holding: Main function of a motherboard is to hold all types of internal parts except SMPS, HDD, CD/DVD RW.

2.Distribute: Motherboard distributes the above said {(-12)-(+12)} dc current to all other parts as per their needs through its design of logic.

Processor:

Main interior/integral parts of internal devices is processor. From its pronounciation it seems to like as to be processed.

1. Process: All types of works which instructed by us is to be processed with binary numbers and help of boolean algebra is to be placed an core of processor.

2. Execute: Processed data needs to be execute for our realization is to be placed on another part of processor.

CPU FAN: Its only function is to be maintained processor’s temperature in equilified.

RAM: RAM stands for Random Access Memory.

1.Volatile Memory: RAM works as a volatile memory. Volatile means if we input such a thing via k/b or mouse, memory keeps that thing until or unless if we shut down or close that program.

2. Capacity and Capability: Any type of RAM contains with two types of product.

(i) Size or Capacity, and

(ii) Capability or frequency.

(i) Size depends on its space which denoted as MB/GB.

(ii) Capability or frequency depends on its FSB{Front Side Bus} which is denoted as Ghz.

In case of RAM frequency means compiling times and capacity means how many work is to be done in a proper time.

HDD(Hard Disk Drive): HDD works as a seondary memory that means it contains any type of data.

CD/DVD RW: The CD RW can be used as normal CD-R, but it can also be erased and reused. The CD RW burner uses its medium level of laser power to melt the data layer so new data can be added to the disk.

DVD+RW is the re-writable version of DVD+R. It can read approx 1,000 times. They also hold 4.7 GB of data or video and must be used in DVD+RW compatible recorders and burners or multi-format recorders.

SATA/PATA: It maintains link up between a hard disk and motherboard. Its both way interconnected between the above two.

External Ports: Those parts which are easily visible from outside like keyboard(by pressing), mouse(by clicking), monitor(Displays the operation), scanner, printer etc.

Power Supply Unit: It converts mains AC to low voltage to low voltage to a regulated DC power needed for the internal components of a computer.

Basic Components of Computer

A PC is a combination of hardware and software. Everything that one can see and touch is hardware. The computer has a large number of components that can be classified into mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central processing unit and output unit. Central Processing Unit or CPU further includes Arithmatic Logic Unit and Control unit.

A computer performs major operations irrespective of its size and make. They are--------

1 It accepts data or instructions as input,

2. it stores data and information,

3. It processes data as per the instructions,

4. It gives results in the form of output.

(a) Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for processing.

(b) Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing.

(c) Processing Unit: The task of performing operations like arithmatic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

CPU includes Arithmatic Logic Unit(ALU) and Control Unit(CU).

Arithmatic Logic Unit(ALU): All calculations and comparisons based on the instructions provided, are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmatic functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operation s like greater than, less than and equal to etc.

Control Unit: Controlling all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations insidethe computer.

(d) Output Unit: The Output Unit is used to communicatethe results produced by an information processing system(such as a computer) to the outside world.

Memory: Computer’s memory can be classified into two parts:

1.Primary memory and

2. Secondary memory.

1. Primary memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

• RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in currentuse are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.

• ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of which are not even when the computer is turned off. It typically contains manufacturer’s instructionn. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.

RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in currentuse are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.

ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of which are not even when the computer is turned off. It typically contains manufacturer’s instructionn. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.

2. Secondary Memory

RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiallary memory is storage other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data.

Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard disks and optical storage devices are Cds, DVDs, Pen Drive, Zip Drive etc.

Hard Disk

Hard Disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a box. The hard disk and hard didk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacitors ranging from 1GB to 1TB and more. Hard Disks are rewritable.

Compact Disc

Compact Disc(CD) is portable disc having data storage capacity between 650-700MB. It can hold large amount of information such as music, videos and text etc. Cds can be either read only or read write type.

Digital Video Disc(DVD)

Digital Video Disc(DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous clarity. Depending upon the disc type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on tv or computer too.

Input Devices:

An i/p device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices, but the two most common ones are k/b and mouse. Every key we press on the k/b and every moment or click we make with the mouse sends a specified input signal to the computer.

Keyboard:

The k/b is very much like a standard type writer keyboard witha few additional keys. The basic QWERT layout is maintained to make it easy to use the system. The additional keys are includedto perform certain special functions. These are known as function keys that vary in number from k/b to k/b.

Mouse:

A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a small object we can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks like a mouse. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction.

Trackball:

A trackball is an i/p device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the top, which can be rolled in any direction.

Touchpad:

A touchpad is a device for pointing (controlling i/p positioning) on a computer display screen. It is an alternative to the movie. Originally incorporated in laptop computers. A touchpad works by sensing the users finger movement and downward pressure. It allows the user to make selections by simply touching the display screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM medical monitors and industrial control panels.

Light Pen:

Light Pen is an i/p device that utilizes a light sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition: MICR can identify character printed with a special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds applications in banking industry.

Optical Mark Recognition(OMR): OMR, also called mark sense reader is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark,. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.

Bar Code Reader: Bar Code Readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in super market, bookshops etc.

Scanner: Scanner is an i/p device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and translates the information into a form that computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing image.

Output Devices:

Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desire form. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the o/p unit, which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of the two ways---------

on the display device(soft copy), or in a paper(hard copy).

Monitor: It is often used synonymously with "Computer screen" or "display". Monotor is an output device that resembles the television screen. It may use a cathode ray tube(CRT) or liquid crystal display(LCD) to display information. The monitor associated with with a k/b for manual i/p of characters and didplays the information as it is keyed in. Monitors are available in different sizes.

Printer: Printers are used to produce paper copy (commonly known as hard copy). Based on the technology used, they can be classified as impact or non-impact printers.

Impact printers use the type-writing printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and character printers fall under the category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical heat or electrical signals to fetch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this category.

Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and makes line drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.

Facsimile(Fax): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text over a telephone line. Fax machines work by digitizing an image.

Sound Cards and Speaker: An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound Cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and on modern personal computers. Sound Cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer System:

The impact of pc on humans are huge. Some advantages and disadvantages of computers are given below-------

Advantages

• Speed

• Accuracy

• Stores huge amount of data

• Online trading

• Online education/Distance learning

• Research

• Forecasting weather and predicting earthquakes, volcano eruptions

• Produce employment

• Internet

• Business

Speed

Accuracy

Stores huge amount of data

Online trading

Online education/Distance learning

Research

Forecasting weather and predicting earthquakes, volcano eruptions

Produce employment

Internet

Business

Speed: The speed of computer has made a vital impact of an human society. The computer is not just calculating device, with the use of its speed computer can performmultiple task, multiple operations, complex numerical problems within fraction of second. They can perform about Trillions of instructions per second. That’s unbelievable speed.

Accuracy: Not only speed but a computer can work with almost 100% aaccuracy. For example, if we give a task to calculate the gross salary of ten thousand employees with a deduction in its salaries as per the rules and regulations. That is not not a simple task to calculate the given salaries manually. You can obtain the results at your fingertips within a fraction of seconds when given a proper input, with great speed and incredible accuracy.Hence the big organizations with hundreds of employees working for them use the computer generated bills and pay slips.

Stores Huge Amount of Data: Data storing capabilities of computers three days are huge as compared to previous years.They can store data or instruction given to them permanently. Users can recall the data or instructions or information given to them anytime.

The storing capability of computer is measured in MB, GB, TB.

Online Trading: People use computer and internet while purchasing and selling their goods. According to a recent survey more than 50% of people across the world use computers for their online trading.

Online trading has been made such an easy and time saving. You have a variety of products with best prices, many websites offer their users heavy discount.

Online Education/Distance Learning: This is one of the biggest advantage of computers as students, professionals can get a quality education at their fingertips. It is a box full of knowledge and skils. People use many video sharing websites for learning, go to any video sharing websites such as youtube.com and search for your favourite topic you will find tons of videos made by user for educational purpose and also you can find the videos in your own languages.

Research: Take any field in research you will find a use of a computer in them. They can solve mathematical calculations, save huge data and present the data whenever required. Scientist uses computer, and they have been an integral part of their research process.

Forecasting Weather and Predicting Earthquakes: Super computers are used in weather forecasting, predicting earthquakes, volcano eruptions, the scientist predict the time and hence they can save people from these natural disasters. Super Computer are also used in defence, space exploration, nuclear energy etc.

Produce Employment: Computer produces great amount of jobs per year, people don’t want to work manually anymore as this is tedious, time-consuming, and inaccurate whereas the computer works with unbelievably accuracy and speed and are reliable. From last few years, the need of computer professionals has reached to a different level, every organization, every business needs computer experts, professionals in their unit. The workload of humans has been drastically removed from them by using computers.

Internet: The internet has been the most valuable invention of all time. Evaluation of internet has changed the entire human civilization with the connectivity internet has provided you can reach to any place in the world, you can have a video chat with your friends, family and loved ones living abroad using the internet. You can get quality education, you can purchase goods, surf the net, play songs, download softwares, movies etc. This has been considered as the greatest computer advantage.

Business: People use computer in business because of its features ofstoring volumes of data, multitasking doing complex calculation, working more efficiently than humans, it doesn’t have human traits such as envy, jealousy, tiredness. The computer has become a huge contributor in business.

Disadvantages:

The following are the computer disadvantages :

• Health issues

• Virus and hacking attacks

• Computer can not take their own decision No IQ

• Negative effect on Environment

• Crashed networks

• Spread of violence, hatred

• Online cyber crimes

• Data and information violation

Health issues

Virus and hacking attacks

Computer can not take their own decision No IQ

Negative effect on Environment

Crashed networks

Spread of violence, hatred

Online cyber crimes

Data and information violation

Health Issues: PC when prolonged used has negative effects on eyes due to radiation emitted by monitors. The eyes get dry resulting blurry visions, stress in the eye muscles, weak eyes. One should take some precautionary measures while using computer for long hours, taking small breaks while using washing eyes with water making them wet, ralaxing eyes can do a great help.

When used continuously back muscles get harder due to improper sitting positions, neck muscles lose their elasticity, pain in the hands and joints are the primary adverse symptoms of computer use. Avoiding or taking rest in between works can overcome the negative consequences of overworking with computers. Improper digestion is also found in people who work on PC for long and continuous periods.

Virus and hacking attacks: Virus are just computer programs which are designed and developed to harm the computer, steal important information like passwords, pins and other sensitive information.Hackers use this program to crack your system down and get unauthorized access to your computer systems, which can damage people economically as well as socially .

One should use legal software, antivirus program, and anti-hacking software while surfing on the net or while online trading which minimizes the hacking and virus attacks. Data security has been a major concern due to computer viruses and hacking attacks many companies offers services for data security.

Computer cannot take their own decision NO IQ : As PC does not have their own IQ they cannot take decisions on their own, which sometimes make our work tedious then it looks They simply operate when given proper and correct instruction, if computer get wrong or improper instruction the result will be wrong as they do not have logical brains determining true or false.

Negative effect on Environment : The computer waste and the manufacturing process produce lots of waste .which is harmful to the environment and our society. The used computer or the computer which is in no more use should be donated.There waste produce harmful chemicals which pollute our environment and nature, therefore use of green computer should be applied as it has no adverse effect on environment and can be recycled.

Crashed networks : Computer can be easily connected to each other via "NETWORKING", It can connect to internet . Imagine you have an office of 25 computers, all of the computers are connected with each other with shared internet.while all of your employees do different works on their respective computers and one day your network goes down or the whole network is crashed .you will find that all the computer which are connected to each other stop working and hence less production or no work is found.This is one of the significant Disadvantage of computer occurs frequently when used in a network.

Spread of violence and hatred : The spread of violence and hate-related articles can be found easily while surfing the internet. People get in touch with this articles which destroys the thinking process of individuals and we find consequences which are not for the betterment of human society.

Cyber Crimes: Some people which are commonly called as "HACKERS OR CRACKER" break down our computer system and get unauthorized access and steals our credit card numbers our passwords and our sensitive information. With this information, they violate all laws and misuse our information of their benefits.

Data and Information violation: Irrespective of many securities our data can be lost due to damaged memory or using spam websites while they inject malicious program Trojan, worm to your computer system which corrupts or even destroys the data available on your systems. And sometimes this program which is developed by hackers or crackers retrieves your bank details with passwords, credit cards information’s and misuse them.

Block Diagram Of Computer System:

Block diagram of computer system

​

​A block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationship of the blocks.

Mainly computer system consists of 3 parts, that are central processing unit(cpu), Input unit, output unit. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is divided into two parts again: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU). The set of instruction is in the form of raw data.

A large amount of data is stored in the computer memory with the help of primary and secondary storage devices. The CPU is like the heart/brain of the computer. The user does not get the desired output, without the necessary option taken by the CPU. The Central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for the processing of all the instructions which are given by the user to the computer system.

Software:

Software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in particular order. Hardware and software are complimentary to each other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful results. Computer software is classified into two broad categories; system software and application software.

System Software: System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer equipment including functions like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading, storing and is an interface between an application programs and the computer. MS DOS, UNIX are examples of system software.

Application Software: Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing, budgeting or payroll, fall under this category. MS OFFICE is an example of application software.

Types of application softwares are:

(i) Word processing software: The main purpose of this software is to produce documents. MS WORD, Word Pad, Note Pad and some other text editors are examples of word processing software.

(ii) Database software: Database is a collection of related data. The purpose of this software is to organize and manage data. The advantage of this software is that we can change way data is stored and displayed. MS ACCESS, Dbase, FoxPro, Paradox, and Oracle are some of the examples of database software.

(iii) Spreadsheet software: The spreadsheet software is used to maintain budget, financial statements, grade sheets, and sales records. The purpose of this software is organizing numbers. It also allows the users to perform simple or complex calculations on the numbers entered in rows and columns. MS EXCEL is one of the example of spreadsheet software.

(iv) Presentation software: This software is used to display the information in the form of slide show. The three main functions of presentation software is editing that allows insertion and formatting of text, including graphics in the text and exucuting the slide shows. The best example for this type of application software is MS POWERPOINT.

(v)Multimedia software: Media players and real players are the examples of multimedia software. This software will allow the user to create audio and videos. The different forms of multimedia software are audio converters, players, burners, video encoders and decoders.

Development of Computer Generation

In England, at cambridge, the EDSAC(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer) was developed. The EDSAC performed computations in the 3 millisecond range. It performed arithmatic and logical operations without human intervention. The key to success was in the stored instructions which it depended upon solely for its operation. This machine marked the beginning of the computer age.

First Generation(1945-1959):

The first generation of computers started with the UNIVAC I(Universal Automatic Computer). This machine was dedicated to business data processing and not millitary or scientific purposes.

Characteristics of First Generation Computers:

1. Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuits,

2. Magnetic drum as primary internal-storage medium,

3. Limited main-storage capacity,

4. Low level symbolic language programming,

5. Heat and maintenance problems

Applications: Payroll processing and record keeping through stil oriented toward scientific applications that and business data processing.

Examples: IBM 650, UNIVAC I.

Second Generation(1959-1964):

Characteristics of second generation of computers:

1. Use of transistors for internal operations instead of vacuum tubes,

2. Magnetic core as primary internal-storage medium,

3. Increased main-storage capacity,

4. Faster input/output; tape orientation,

5. High-level programming languages(COBOL, FORTRAN),

6. Increased speed and reliability,

7. Batch-oriented applications.

Examples: IBM 1401(most popular business-oriented computer), Honeywell 200, CDC 1604.

Third Generation Computer(1964-1970):

Characteristics of third generation computers:

1. Use of integrated circuits,

2. Magnetic core and solid-state main storage,

3. Advances in solid-state technology allowed for the design and building of smaller and fast computers.

4. Extensive use of high-level programming languages,

5. Remote processing and time-sharing through communication.

Examples: IBM SYSTEM/360 NCR, BURROUGHS B6500.

Applications: Such as airline reservation systerms, market forecasting, credit card billing. The applications also included inventory, control and scheduling labor and materials. Multitasking was also accomplished. Both scientific and business applications could be run on the same machine.

Fourth Generation(1970-Now):

Characteristics of fourth generation computers:

1. use of large scale integrated circuits,

2. Increased storage capacity and speed,

3. Modular design and compatibility between equipment, special application programs versatability of input/outputdevices,

4. Increased use of microcomputers,

5. Introduction of microprocessors and microcomputers.

Applications: Mathematical modeling and simulation, electronic funds transfer, computer-aided instruction and home computers. Internet explotion.

History of computer:

Abacus: The first manual calculating device was introduced by chinese in 450 B. C. It was named on its inventor by G.K.Abacus. An Abacus has a wooden frame holding rods on which beads are strung. It has 2 beads in the top section over the horizontal bar and 5 beads in the lower section.

To show the number, you have to pull down the beads, so that each rod represents a digit. The calculation depends on the movement of the beads are moved accordingly to a set of rules.

Analytical Machine: Charles Babbage, a british mathematics professor, is regarded as the father of computers. He was born born in England in 1972 as the son of a rich banker from Devon. He was inspired by Napier’s logarithm tables and Napier’s logs and bones. He began to design a "difference engine" in 1821 which was a very large and complicated machine intended for doing logarithmic calculations automatically. The Analytical machine had five units--------

input, output, store, mill and controls.

Types of Computers:

There are mainly four types of computers. They are-------

1. Microcomputer/Personal Computer,

2. Minicomputer,

3. Mainframe computer,

4. Super computer.

1. Microcomputer/Personal Computer: Microcomputers are designed to be used by individuals, it is called Personal computer also. It is generally used at home and schools. A Personal Computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.

2. Minicomputer: A minicomputer is a class of multiuser computers that lies between the largest multi-user systems(mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems(micro or personal computers). The class at one time formed a distinct group with its hardware and operating systems, but the contemporary term for this class of system is midrange omputer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and itanium-based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard(HP).

Industries developed microcomputer:

1. DEC

2. Data General

3. Hewlett-Packard(HP)

3. Mainframe computer: A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor(in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainfames are just belowsupercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they supportmore simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and mincomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

4. Supercomputer: The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and emplyed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercompuetr. Other uses of supercomputers include animated grapics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.

Inventor of Super Computer: Seymour Cray

Manufactures of super computers:

Alox informatics, Alta Technology, Convex Computer Corporation, Chen Systems, Cray Reaserch Inc, Digital Equipment Corporation, Fujitsu, Hewlett-Packard, Hitachi, IBM, Integrated Computer Engines, Intel Super computer Systems Division, Meito, NEC, Parsytec Computer Gmbtl, Pyramid, Sequent Computer Systems, Siemens Nixdorf Information Systems, AGSilicon Graphics Inc, Systems Ltd, Tera Computer Computer etc.